This publication examines the legal parameters of the term "effective control" under international law in the context of an occupation and asserts that the application of the standards of the test for "effective control" indicates that
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Turkey's President Tayyip Erdogan, Japan's Prime Minister Sanae Takaichi, and Indonesia's Vice President Gibran Rakabuming Raka during the G20 Leaders' Summit in Johannesburg, South Africa, on November 22, 2025. (Getty Images)